The Incident
Brown University is an independent, coeducational Ivy League Institution that is made up of undergraduate and graduates. Located in Providence, Rhode Island and founded in 1764, Brown University is the seventh oldest college in the United States. The institution prides itself in a vibrant and diverse community that consists of 6,000 undergraduates, 2,000 graduate students, 400 medical school students, 5,000 online students, and nearly 700 faculty members. Undergraduate pursuing a bachelor’s degree are encouraged by the university’s commitment to undergraduate freedom which means students must take responsibility as architects of their course of study. Brown is recognized for its global reach, cultural events and numerous campus groups and activities.
Providence is the capital of Rhode Island and has a long history being established as one of the first cities in the United States. Providence is the third largest city in the New England region. The estimated population of Providence, Rhode Island is 178,042. African Americans constitute 16% of the city of Providence. Asians are 6.4% of Providence’s population with different ethnicities such as Cambodians, Chinese, Asian Indians, Loatians, and Koreans. Native Americans and Alaska Native make up 1.4% of the population. Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander’s make up 0.1% of the city. Persons of Hispanic or Latino origin make up 38.1% of the population. White persons not Hispanic make up 37.6% of the city. White persons made up 49.8% percent of the population. The city is noted for its multiculturalism and diversity because of the many communities that reside in Providence and the attractions that the city has. This case study will discuss points of multiculturalism and diversity using Shannon Sullivan’s “Revealing Whiteness: The Unconscious Habits of Racial Privilege.”
In the summer 2010, I served dually as a Mellon Initiative Scholar and an intern in the Leadership Alliance Summer Research Early Identification Program (LA SR-EIP) at Brown University and participated in a rigorous research program with Dr. Jin Li and Dr. Yoko Yamamoto. I conducted a study on Cultural and Economic Differences in Learning and Academic Performance: a Comparative Analysis among European American and Chinese American Children, which examined the cultural and economic differences in learning and academic performance. The results of the study revealed that it is important to examine cultural and socio-economic status of children to suggest school readiness in children. Our results suggested that children from low-income families and are minorities are far less prepared than children from middle class backgrounds. The significance of these findings suggested the importance and need for the research that I conducted at Brown University. It was during the summer of 2010 that I experienced many of the concepts that I have read about in Revealing Whiteness. There were three separate situations that occurred during the summer of 2010 that crystallized my experience at Brown University. Using the terminology found in Sullivan’s book, I will highlight incidents where the collective unconscious habits of white privilege formulated the actions of others that did and did not exist.
When I arrived at Brown University in the summer of 2010, I was excited and ecstatic to have this opportunity to engage in intellectual work that I was sure would lead me to higher heights and deeper depths. I moved into the dormitory in June of that summer, brimming with excitement I hurried my things into the room and settled my belongings. I scurried to the Leadership Alliance summer orientation where I met several students who were just as intellectual as I was. During the introductions, I met my group leader by the name of Nick. During the meeting, Nick made it a point to say that he was an openly gay doctoral student studying epidemiology. Our group was the Social Science cohort of the Brown University summer interns. By far we were not the students working long hours in biology or chemistry labs. We were not the one’s doing hard science. The other student’s that I met at that meeting were Danielle, Brandon, Gabrielle, Max, and Heather. Four of the summer interns in the Social Science cohort were African Americans: Danielle, Brandon, Gabrielle, and I. Heather identified herself as Hispanic/Latina from Chicago. Interesting, Max identified himself as other. By his appearance, he could pass for white, however, he was mixed with a black mother and a white father. Out of twenty seven the summer interns, there were nine students who were African American. The differences in our cohort were apparent of this. It seemed as if all of the white students (except four) were in the hard sciences and the rest of us were in the soft sciences. Even more strikingly, the group dynamics of the entire summer interns were evident on our down time in the dormitory.
Being undergraduates on our summer vacation, we partied. However, the summer interns partied differently. On one occasion I noticed that there was a party happening upstairs from my dorm. I walked upstairs to find all of the hard science student’s party. Yet, Heather and Max were also in the room. I found that interesting because I don’t recall seeing any of the black students in the room. I am not implying that there was or is anything wrong with the picture. On the other hand, I do not recall being invited to the party. Even though, I know that any dorm or house party is open to all who want to join in the fun. Yet, I felt as if my presence was not wanted. No one said anything to me expressing their displeasure in my presence. But nothing had to be said for me to feel the cold uncomfortableness of that moment. Shortly after making my observations, I left and returned to my room. Later, I asked the other black summer interns if they had heard about the party. No one said that they were invited. At that moment, we realized that something was different between the upstairs summer interns and the downstairs summer interns.
Of course, group dynamics suggests that the people you spend the time with the most are the ones you would hang out with more often. However, at this time, it felt as if it was done purposely without them even knowing that it was on purpose. That night we had discussed the differences between the summer interns upstairs and the ones that were downstairs. The ones upstairs were white or non-Hispanic, except for Max and Heather. The ones downstairs were black or Hispanic. It could also be observed the economic difference between the groups. The students upstairs were seemingly more affluent than the students that were downstairs. We left that night walking away with a different understanding of our placement in the program and which spaces we were allowed to venture to.
On another occasion where I recognized the concepts within Revealing Whiteness occurred during my assignments in my lab. Working with Dr. Jin Li was great. I learned a lot under her about research. As I stated before, we were working on a project that would examine the cultural differences of European Americans and Chinese Americans for reading, writing, and oral ability. We found that economic status was a common factor that contributed to access to education. However, I found that I was at a disadvantage as a summer intern. I did not enjoy my experience working in the education lab at Brown University. At times, I felt that because I was new, inexperienced, and from an HBCU that my work always had to be double checked. It is common for an intern to make mistakes and I had my share. On the other hand, it was the role of the advisor to give me the directions I needed to successfully complete the tasks that were given to me. At the end of my summer internship, my advisor and I had a meeting about my work. There were many great accolades given to me for the work that I did. She even said that I would receive a letter of recommendation.
Later, I was discouraged when I inquired about my letter of recommendation my advisor stated, “I thought about your request for a while and decided that I will not be able to write a glowing letter on your behalf. The reason is that we looked at the work you did during the summer and found many errors. Dr. Yamamoto has been spending a lot of time checking and rechecking the data you entered. We have yet to clean all the errors. I know that you are very a capable and motivated student, and you meant to do good work. But because of the state of the work we found, it would be unfair for me to write a letter that presents a different picture. I think that you would be better off asking another faculty member to write you a letter that truly reflects your strength.” Although, I may not be able to pinpoint an exact concept that would relate to Sullivan’s Revealing Whiteness, I could definitely feel an unconscious presence that slipped into her email to me. Previously she stated all interns would receive a letter of recommendation to a point where she disregards all of my “good work” and feels that I did not do a good enough job to receive a letter of recommendation.
The last incident occurred when I was with my group of friends traveling the streets of downtown Providence. We went to the annual Waterfire cultural events that were held on the waters that flowed through the city of Providence. During this event, the highlighted cultural group was African Americans. After the Waterfire concert, there was a rendition of hip hop and R&B songs that filled the streets. My cohort ventured further downtown to an Italian restaurant for a dinner. During dinner we experienced something that we never would have thought to have felt while we were staying at Brown. A car drove by us and it felt as if I were in the summer of 1967 in Georgia. The car was topless with three white women in it. One of the young ladies was on top of the car and yelled words that struck deep into my core. She exclaimed, “I hate (explicit) niggers,” and the car sped away in the distant night. At that moment, time froze and it was if we were in a still framed picture of the civil rights moment of the 1960’s. All that was needed was a few dozen police officers, a barking dog ready to be released, a few fire hoses spraying water while we were eating, and the chants of others with the same words. But this did not happen. Yet, this scene and that moment were weighted to feel as if those images were present. I looked at the white students in my cohort and they looked astonished. As if I could tell what they were thinking, the expressions said, “What are you going to do.” I had a bottle in my hand and if I had thought about it what I would have done was throw it at the car. But then I am glad I didn’t because what would that resolve or prove. Even worse, would I be publicly thronged for acting out of character; another black Negro that did not know how to control his emotions in public. Finally, as we were walking away from that situation and that night, one of my friends broke down and cried and exclaimed, “No matter how far we go, no matter how much education we will get, we will still be nothing but niggers to them.” Brandon tried to explain the situation away with reason and intellect. But the moment was more than just what was said but what was felt. That moment made us feel so low while attending a prestigious Ivy League
Sullivan states, “ethical slippages and phantoms – these concepts describe a society’s collective unconscious in its complex fluid relationship with individual habits and capture the broad geographical and historical expanse of habit formation.” It is possible that over time and with Providence’s historical roots as being the founding cities of this nation that there are several phantoms that still exist. Sullivan suggests that cultural habits and collective habits give the fuel to individual unconscious habits. She also notes that the “collective unconscious habits of white privilege…both do and do not seem to exist." In my interactions with the students who were student interns there was this collective unconscious that existed but did not exist. I could not readily call their actions as racism because some of them did not realize that their actions were racist. Moreover, their actions portrayed what Sullivan describes as the phantom that slips into their unconscious behaviors toward the minority cohort.
Furthermore, Sullivan describes the space that creates and is created by white privilege. She notes that, “Space, race, and place are constituted transactionally such that space is raced and that bodies raced through their lived spatiality.” She further explained that, “the idea of space as racially neutral often is complicit with white privilege, that spatiality can contribute to the racial and racist division of a civilized “we” from a wild “them,” and that systems of white domination respectively tend to allow and constrain white and non-white people to live their spatiality in different way.” Thus, my interaction with the student interns was the creation of spaces that were divided to the “we” and “them” concept. The very fact that majority of the minority student lived downstairs and the majority of the majority students lived upstairs created the physical space that also constituted the lived spatiality that Sullivan describes. It was as if the space formed the racist habits and played out in our interactions with each other. These actions are a phantom-like in that they are there and not there at the same time. Thus, the effects of white privilege are there and not there, influencing our actions consciously and subconsciously.
Sullivan furthers her understanding of these spaces by stating that, “the conception of space and habits of lived spatiality as race-free constitutes a false neutrality that makes invisible the inequalities of raced space, rendering one powerless in the face of, and often complicit with, racism.” In the case of my research advisor, I believed that she was not acting in a racist way, however, her actions were complicit with the historical and embedded notions of white privilege in a conservative community. What strikes me as odd in this context is that my advisor and the other RA’s were of Asian ethnicity. Of course, I recognized that I have made my mistakes on that research project; however, I believe that there were some notions of ontological expansiveness. The place in which these actions occurred only furthered the agenda of white privilege. Sullivan suggests that, “the rhetoric of place often combines with settled habits of space to simultaneously encourage the ontological expansiveness of white people and constrain the lived spatiality of non-white people.” The actions of my advisors to check and recheck my work was unconsciously suggesting that I did not belong in that place and although they were minorities themselves, the agenda of white privilege to encourage ontological expansiveness was only fostered in that environment.
My experience at Brown University in the summer of 2010 allowed me to have several appropriate relationships as Sullivan described. By this I mean that I was in situations where the appropriate relationship was that of the appropriation of my creativity. Further, I can draw connections to the appropriations of generations of African American’s before. In the experience I had at the African American festival that led to the horrible comment that was made to me and the group, we were in a situation of an appropriate relationship. The appropriate relationship occurred during the time of the festival. It was obvious that the locals were not used to celebrating African American culture. In fact, most of the cultural festivals are geared towards other groups. African American’s only got one day to celebrate our heritage. Yet, we were not wanted. Sullivan suggests that, “if a dominant group will not voluntarily make room for oppressed groups’ needs and desires – and dominant groups rarely do – then oppressed groups might need to create a separate space in which they can develop, nurture, and satisfy them.” At the end of the summer, during this cultural event we tried to create this space after being bombarded with ontological expansiveness of white privilege. To our chagrin, we were called niggers. Even worse, we were told by a white woman how much she hated African Americans. It was at this moment, I realized how much we were not wanted in this space or place. I also realized that no matter what we did through the creativity of our intelligentsia in education that it did not matter. Thus, my friend wailed, “No matter how far we go, no matter how much education we will get, we will still be nothing but niggers to them!”
Through the reading of Sullivan and analyzing the case study, I have realized that I have finally come to terms with that summer. In order to be social justice advocates, we need to recognize the collective unconscious habits of white privilege that are there and not there. I must actively engage in the practice of resistance. I also realized that even African Americans can become complacent and complicit to the powers of white privilege. As much as our history would dictate our actions in the civil rights movement, we cannot just simply call someone or their actions as racist. In order to be freedom fighters to resist racial inequalities we must help our counterparts become more aware of the white privilege that operates in our institutions, social interactions, and environments. Sullivan suggests that any activist needs to continually the effects of our activism on ourselves and in the world. We must individually take responsibility to expose and change them with the hopes to stop the attempts of unconscious habits of white privilege. I will always remember what Emmitt Till’s mother said, “I have no reason to hate, but I will pursue justice for the rest of my life.”
The unexamined life is not worth living.
Wednesday, May 8, 2013
Sunday, December 30, 2012
Baltimore Sun Op-Ed - December 12, 2012
Morgan State University is the leading historically black university in the State of Maryland. As of today, our crisis is outrageous and overwhelming to say the least. We need a strong leader in the person of David Wilson at the helm of Morgan State University. In this case, the Board of Regents are wrong in their decision not to extend his contract ("Morgan State refuses to renew contract of president," Dec. 11).
Please take a look at the facts of Mr. Wilson's record and the tremendous progress he has had in two years. Gov. Martin O'Malley has set a statewide goal that by 2025 at least 55 percent of the state's residents age 25-64 will hold at least one degree credential, either an associate's or bachelors. Morgan State University is crucial to these numbers. Similarly, Mr. Wilson is key to bringing this institution to where we need it to be.
The students believe that Mr. Wilson has inherited issues that have yet to be resolved. He has a robust and comprehensive 10 year strategic plan on the table and needs time to implement it. Since coming here, Mr. Wilson has been engaging, open, transparent and above board with all constituents he's interacted with. His vision for the university has been developed through a shared effort that warrants praise of the highest order. The visibility of the university has increased among the state legislators to a level the university has not seen in the last decade. These key relationships are moving the university forward. Removing him at this point in time will only stall the progress the university has made.
The students recommend that the Board of Regents provide a detailed explanation of their reasoning behind not renewing Mr. Wilson's contract. It is our hope that they will reverse this decision based on the facts. We believe in Morgan State University, and we believe in David Wilson.
Eugene Smith, Baltimore
The writer is a graduate student in higher education at Morgan State University.
Please take a look at the facts of Mr. Wilson's record and the tremendous progress he has had in two years. Gov. Martin O'Malley has set a statewide goal that by 2025 at least 55 percent of the state's residents age 25-64 will hold at least one degree credential, either an associate's or bachelors. Morgan State University is crucial to these numbers. Similarly, Mr. Wilson is key to bringing this institution to where we need it to be.
The students believe that Mr. Wilson has inherited issues that have yet to be resolved. He has a robust and comprehensive 10 year strategic plan on the table and needs time to implement it. Since coming here, Mr. Wilson has been engaging, open, transparent and above board with all constituents he's interacted with. His vision for the university has been developed through a shared effort that warrants praise of the highest order. The visibility of the university has increased among the state legislators to a level the university has not seen in the last decade. These key relationships are moving the university forward. Removing him at this point in time will only stall the progress the university has made.
The students recommend that the Board of Regents provide a detailed explanation of their reasoning behind not renewing Mr. Wilson's contract. It is our hope that they will reverse this decision based on the facts. We believe in Morgan State University, and we believe in David Wilson.
Eugene Smith, Baltimore
The writer is a graduate student in higher education at Morgan State University.
Saturday, December 29, 2012
Wilson to stay at Morgan State for one more year
At the Dec. 28 meeting, the board agreed to negotiate a new, one-year contract that would keep Wilson at the helm through June 2014.
The decision came after the board heard public testimony and a subsequent closed meeting session that lasted nearly three hours.
Wilson said that in the coming year he would work to improve communication between himself and the board. Wilson said he had not done as good a job as he should have in ensuring the board was up-to-date on his plans for the university.
"In order for a university to operate in ship-shape manner, it requires the president and the board to be on the same page," Wilson said.
The board called the meeting Dec. 28 to hear from the public. At least 12 people addressed the board and dozens more crowded into the board’s conference room in solidarity. Board members have been mum about the reason for not renewing Wilson’s contract and ignored pleas for an explanation at the meeting.
“We don’t have authority, we don’t have legal power to change the board’s mind, but we have influence,” said Eugene Smith, a master’s student at Morgan. Smith expressed a sentiment shared by many at the meeting — that the community is speaking out against the board’s vote, “in support not just of Dr. Wilson but of the future of this community.”
Supporters say Morgan improved under Wilson, especially with regard to its oft-strained relationship with neighbors. The Morgan Community Mile project launched under Wilson is intended to strengthen the school’s community ties while building resources for local residents.
Wilson was present at the meeting but did not address the public. He was expected to talk to the board during a closed session.
Others who spoke in support of Wilson included Baltimore City Council members Robert Curran and Mary Pat Clarke.
Curran said it had been “refreshing” to work with Wilson and said no other Morgan administrator had been as receptive to working with the community.
“Morgan State University does not operate in a vacuum,” Curran said to the board.
Alumni and faculty said they feared losing Wilson would hinder the school’s ability to raise money and recruit students. Enrollment and fundraising grew under Wilson, they noted. Enrollment at Morgan increased to 8,011 in 2011 from 7,226 in 2009.
“I can’t understand risking that level of support,” said Jacqueline Lawson, president of the Morgan State University National Alumni Association.
http://www.bizjournals.com/baltimore/news/2012/12/28/backers-say-morgan-state-would-be.html?page=all
The decision came after the board heard public testimony and a subsequent closed meeting session that lasted nearly three hours.
Wilson said that in the coming year he would work to improve communication between himself and the board. Wilson said he had not done as good a job as he should have in ensuring the board was up-to-date on his plans for the university.
"In order for a university to operate in ship-shape manner, it requires the president and the board to be on the same page," Wilson said.
The board called the meeting Dec. 28 to hear from the public. At least 12 people addressed the board and dozens more crowded into the board’s conference room in solidarity. Board members have been mum about the reason for not renewing Wilson’s contract and ignored pleas for an explanation at the meeting.
“We don’t have authority, we don’t have legal power to change the board’s mind, but we have influence,” said Eugene Smith, a master’s student at Morgan. Smith expressed a sentiment shared by many at the meeting — that the community is speaking out against the board’s vote, “in support not just of Dr. Wilson but of the future of this community.”
Supporters say Morgan improved under Wilson, especially with regard to its oft-strained relationship with neighbors. The Morgan Community Mile project launched under Wilson is intended to strengthen the school’s community ties while building resources for local residents.
Wilson was present at the meeting but did not address the public. He was expected to talk to the board during a closed session.
Others who spoke in support of Wilson included Baltimore City Council members Robert Curran and Mary Pat Clarke.
Curran said it had been “refreshing” to work with Wilson and said no other Morgan administrator had been as receptive to working with the community.
“Morgan State University does not operate in a vacuum,” Curran said to the board.
Alumni and faculty said they feared losing Wilson would hinder the school’s ability to raise money and recruit students. Enrollment and fundraising grew under Wilson, they noted. Enrollment at Morgan increased to 8,011 in 2011 from 7,226 in 2009.
“I can’t understand risking that level of support,” said Jacqueline Lawson, president of the Morgan State University National Alumni Association.
http://www.bizjournals.com/baltimore/news/2012/12/28/backers-say-morgan-state-would-be.html?page=all
Wednesday, December 26, 2012
Ode to Jazz - Yea her
You don't understand jazz...
Yea her...
Yea her
Like the pace of city lights,
And the glare of urban nights
You don't understand her
Yea her
I love her
The up tempo beat
The rhythm of the street
You don't understand her, Yea her
I expose her vulnerabilities
To intrigue myself to her capabilities
To show my abilities
You don't understand her, yea her
I love her
She puts me in a sentimental mood
She takes me to the honky tonks of inner city blues
You don't understand her, yea her
Down on the A train
Where the damned dont cry
Where the music seems to fly
You don't understand her, yea her
She takes me down to the summer breeze of New Orleans
To the spring streets of Harlem
This is her
You don't understand her, Yea her
I'm on her corner
She has her way with me
She takes my money
And when she is gone I'm left empty
Maybe it's me
Maybe it's me
Maybe it's me
Do I understand her, yea her?
Yea her...
Yea her
Like the pace of city lights,
And the glare of urban nights
You don't understand her
Yea her
I love her
The up tempo beat
The rhythm of the street
You don't understand her, Yea her
I expose her vulnerabilities
To intrigue myself to her capabilities
To show my abilities
You don't understand her, yea her
I love her
She puts me in a sentimental mood
She takes me to the honky tonks of inner city blues
You don't understand her, yea her
Down on the A train
Where the damned dont cry
Where the music seems to fly
You don't understand her, yea her
She takes me down to the summer breeze of New Orleans
To the spring streets of Harlem
This is her
You don't understand her, Yea her
I'm on her corner
She has her way with me
She takes my money
And when she is gone I'm left empty
Maybe it's me
Maybe it's me
Maybe it's me
Do I understand her, yea her?
Tuesday, December 25, 2012
Implications for Student Affairs Professionals Based on Chickering and Cross
Based on the aforementioned literature and the present study several implications can be made for student affairs professionals. Pope discusses that is important for student affairs professionals to pay attention to the multiple realms of development (2000). Student affairs professionals need to be aware of Chickering’s seven vectors of psychosocial development. At the same, student affairs educators should encourage the racial identity of students in these particular organizations. Using other methods to explore Nigrescence model should be used to encourage the process of becoming black (Cross, 1991).
Student affairs professionals that advise these organizations should encourage students to see themselves as crucial members of the organization so that their purpose can be actualized. It is possible that joining organizations like these can foster a lifestyle that influences their decision-making ability and goal-setting skills. Student affairs professionals should be intentional in their engagement with members of these organizations to connect what they are doing in their organization to what they would be doing for their career and in life generally. Student affairs professionals that work with students in these organizations should continue to emphasize the student’s social responsibility and social role in society. Administrators should intentionally engage students to help find their purpose, their role in society, develop cultural understanding, and connect these values to uplifting other. The participants in this study were able to understand who they were and how they are viewed in society through their own conclusions. However, if student affairs professionals are intentional about the holistic development of these students could possibly yield stronger social justice advocates.
Furthermore, student affairs professional should be encourage the racial identity development of internalization among these students. Programs and workshops should be geared towards multicultural understanding of different groups while ensuring the uplift of the black community. If participants continue on this continuum their role in society will continue to increase as they progress through the cycle of psychosocial development with full understanding of their racial identity.
Student affairs professionals that advise these organizations should encourage students to see themselves as crucial members of the organization so that their purpose can be actualized. It is possible that joining organizations like these can foster a lifestyle that influences their decision-making ability and goal-setting skills. Student affairs professionals should be intentional in their engagement with members of these organizations to connect what they are doing in their organization to what they would be doing for their career and in life generally. Student affairs professionals that work with students in these organizations should continue to emphasize the student’s social responsibility and social role in society. Administrators should intentionally engage students to help find their purpose, their role in society, develop cultural understanding, and connect these values to uplifting other. The participants in this study were able to understand who they were and how they are viewed in society through their own conclusions. However, if student affairs professionals are intentional about the holistic development of these students could possibly yield stronger social justice advocates.
Furthermore, student affairs professional should be encourage the racial identity development of internalization among these students. Programs and workshops should be geared towards multicultural understanding of different groups while ensuring the uplift of the black community. If participants continue on this continuum their role in society will continue to increase as they progress through the cycle of psychosocial development with full understanding of their racial identity.
The Relationship between Psychosocial Development and Racial Identity Development of African American Student Leaders in Black Greek-Lettered Organizations
Black Greek-Lettered Organizations (BGLO’s) have been influential on the leadership development of college students. These organizations were specifically founded for the cultivation of Black college students for their academic and social uplift with a focus on their racial history, background, tradition, and culture of African Americans. It could be implied that Black Greek-Lettered Organizations have had a significant impact on the psychosocial, racial identity, and leadership development of African American college students. The purpose of the present study is to explore the relationship between psychosocial development and racial identity development of members of Black Greek-Lettered Organization. The present study examines the topic with two major research questions and one supplementary question that was discovered throughout the process of conducting the research. These questions are: (a) how is the psychosocial development of African Americans impacted by joining Black Greek-Lettered Organizations, (b) how is the racial identity development affirmed by joining B.G.L.O’s, and (c) how is leadership identity development affirmed in BGLO’s? These questions will be explored in light of the current literature review, interviews of three members of Black Greek-Lettered Organizations, and implications for student affairs professionals.
Literature Review
According to Chickering (1993), psychosocial development is one of the primary developmental issues that student’s struggle with during their years in college. Chickering and Reisser (1993) provided a framework for how students establish and maintain their identities during college. In the literature, Chickering proposed seven vectors through which students develop and progress in college. Chickering called these vectors a “major highway[s] for journeying toward individuation.” These vectors are developing competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence, developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity. The seven vectors provided the structure for psychosocial development. Chickering developed this theory with the understanding of the student’s emotional, interpersonal, ethical, and intellectual spheres of progression in college. The literature discusses how these vectors build on each other. The processes by which these students move through are more like a cycle or a spiral. The vectors should not be examined as stages in which a student merely moves on to the next stage. On the other hand, as students move through this cycle certain vectors interact with each other, a student may deal with one or more vector at a time, or the student may recycle back to a previous vector to reexamine the issue. Throughout the literature it was noted the interaction between vectors 4 – 7. Establishing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity seem to be key features in developing students, particularly in student leaders in Black Greek-Lettered Organizations.
Theoretical Framework
In Chickering and Reisser’s model (1993), he proposed that these vectors are building blocks of each other. These vectors interact and work together as the student begins to develop throughout college. Developing Competence is the first vector in Chickering’s model. He suggests that student’s intellectual, physical, and interpersonal competence interact to increase a student level of trust in their abilities and integrate their skills to be competitive in the college setting. Next, managing emotions is the second vector and it is in this vector that student develop the understanding of their emotions and how to express their emotions in the most fitting manner. Furthermore, vector three describes students moving through autonomy toward interdependence. In this vector, students develop an increased capacity to be independent from others such as family, friends, and authority figures. Additionally, vector four develops student’s ability to have tolerance and appreciation of other’s differences and the capability to have intimate relationships. In addition, in vector five students begin to establish an identity that builds on vector four. In this vector, the student develops a clear understanding of who they are, become comfortable in their roles in society, and have a greater sense of their social and cultural heritage and how they fit in that tradition. Moreover, in vector six students begin to develop purpose where they cultivate clear and meaningful goals that they commit to the literature discusses that in this stage the students begin to develop “vocations” in which student can deepen their commitments and make meaning of life. Finally, in vector seven, developing integrity, students develop three overlapping values; personalizing values, humanizing values, and congruence. In order to develop integrity, students establish humanizing values that allow them to think of the interest of others more than they think of themselves. In addition, students begin to personalize their values by affirming their beliefs while respecting the opinions of others. At the same time, students develop a sense of congruence by taking their personal values and tying them with their social behavior. It is with this understanding that this paper examines vectors four through seven. The building blocks that interplay between developing mature relations, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity can play a role in the psychosocial development of African American college students in Black Greek-Lettered Organizations. However, the research is limited in that there are no connections made between the racial identity development and the psychosocial development of members of BGLO’s. Cross (1991) was instrumental in exploring the impact of racial identity development in black college students.
Scholars such as Cross (1991) described the racial identity development of African Americans. Cross’s theory has implications for black college students as they navigate the process of becoming black. This process of becoming black is a term coined by Cross called Nigrescence. Within this theory, there are three primary concepts, which are personal identity, reference group orientation, and race salience. According to the research, African Americans go through a process by which they socialize their black identity or lack thereof. Individuals establish a black identity through family, friends, and other events that make up their self-concept in the early stages of life. Depending on their socialization of the black experience, individuals merge into three identity types, which are low salience, high salience, and internalized racism. In early adulthood, it is important for African Americans to establish a reference group orientation (RGO’s) that share the same values that they do towards black culture. RGO’s are important for African American’s to strengthening their black identity. The research conducted here pays close attention to reference groups, and in particular, how students are attracted to certain types of groups. It is through student organizations that Black students can form a better sense of their black self by expanding their understanding of their black culture. Black Greek-Lettered Organizations can possibly provide the support as a reference group to help African American’s establishes a stronger connection to their history, tradition, and culture the broader black community.
In view of Cross’s (1991) model, there are six sectors that comprise all three nigrescence patterns. Particular attention examines sector five of the nigrescence model. Adult Nigrescence involves four stages, which are preencounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization. For the present study, internalization was examined as a key feature that black college students who join BGLO’s could possibly identify with. Internalization is the process through which students resolve their racial identity crisis in three viewpoints. Students become black nationalists, bicultural, or multicultural. Students with a Black Nationalist identity express a political and social justice agenda for the advancement of the black community. Students with a bicultural identity develop concerns with integrating their black identity with the dominant cultures identity. Finally, a student with a multicultural identity accepts a wide spectrum of identities. These students can identify as black, as well as being a member of another group or having another identity. Being black is not the only part of their identity. It is interesting to note that individuals who begin to internalize their black identity become social justice advocates for their particular identity perspective. Being social justice advocates began to develop further in the literature as black college students sought out organizations that enabled them to advance their community, cause, platform, or agenda.
Further research on student organizations and black identity expressions was explored in Harper and Quaye’s (2007) article entitled, Student Organizations as Venues for Black Identity Expression and Development among African American Male Student Leaders. In this article, Harper and Quaye sought out to identify the types of organizations that Black college students pursue to express their identity. The article pays particular attention to African American men and the avenues they use to express their Blackness. Highlighting Cross’s model of Nigresence as a theoretical framework, Harper and Quaye draw connections to the Internalization stage. Individuals in this stage develop an association towards groups that help them affirm their blackness and allow them to be social justice advocates. A caveat to this stage is that individuals begin to fight for the rights of other minority groups. Harper and Quaye’s sought to understand how student organizations affirm the racial identity development of African American male undergraduates (2007).
Participants in Harper and Quaye’s study expressed the desire to uplift the African American community and “doing their part” toward the issues on campus. It was also interesting to note that participants joined organizations on campus to dismiss certain stereotypes of the black community. For some members of these organizations it was observed that they chose the particular organization because they want to meet the needs of the African American community directly. On the other hand, several participants expressed that they joined majority organizations to be the voice of the African American community and use the resources of these organizations to support the cause of Black and minority student groups. This could possibly be done through student organization collaborations. The central theme is that these black male student leaders desired to be the voice for the rights and privileges of the minority student organizations and in particular, the African American community. This theme can be directly related to Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) seventh vector where students begin to develop humanizing values that allow them to think of others more than they think of themselves. In addition, vector five comes into play as these students desire to find themselves within their cultural heritage and advocating for its right (Chickering, 1993). Another interesting theme that came out of the literature is the development of cross-cultural understanding with other groups. Participants described that they learned how to work with groups of different cultures and backgrounds. It was through these interactions with other student organizations that they developed a greater sense of a social responsibility to others, in particular other minority students. The limitation of this research is that it was mainly conducted with black male student leaders who were from Predominately White Institutions. Future research should examine African American student leaders of both genders. In addition, research should be expanded to Historically Black College and Universities.
Comparatively, previous research had been conducted to examine the racial identity development needs of college students of color, and in particular black college students (R. Pope, 1998; R. Pope, 2000). Pope based her research on racial identity develop by looking at the psychosocial development of college students. Specifically using Chickering’s vectors of identity development, Pope used Establishing and Clarifying Purpose, Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships, and Developing Academic Autonomy to control for racial identity development. The four racial identity statuses that were explored in the study were Black Americans, Asian Americans, Latino Americans, and Native Americans. Establishing and Clarifying Purpose was divided into five categories, which were educational involvement, career planning, lifestyle planning, life management, and cultural participation. Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships were also divided into three categories, which were peer relationships, tolerance, and emotional autonomy. It should also be clarified that Pope based the research in this article on earlier research conducted by Chickering. Thus, the names of the vectors described in this literature are different from the vectors described in the aforementioned literature review. Establishing and Clarifying Purpose was changed to Developing Purpose. Likewise, Developing Academic Autonomy was changed to Developing Competence. Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationship remained the same in the literature. The changes were roughly due to Chickering’s new approach to the literature and broadening their implications (Chickering & Reisser, 1993).
The results of the data from this article described that there was a significant relationship between psychosocial development and racial identity development. It was noted that the main psychosocial factors that contributed the most to racial identity development were Developing Purpose, Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships, and Developing Competence. Pope (2000) suggests that psychosocial development and racial identity development go hand-in-hand. Students need to resolve their racial identity issues while they advanced through the vectors of psychosocial development. For student affairs professionals, attention must be given to the racial identity development of the student before addressing their psychosocial needs. The research suggests that Developing Purpose was the most essential vector for African American in the study (Pope, 2000). These students had a better sense of social responsibility and a greater sense of their calling in life. It is also interesting to note Internalization was related to Developing Purpose and Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships (Pope, 1998). Internalization and the two vectors mention above highlight the amalgamation of identity (who am I), personal goals in life (how do I know), and building strong relationships (how do I connect with others) (Pope, 1998). As we see in this literature, a hint of Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship is within the research as well. Although it was not studied in this research, self-authorship could play a role in how students go through the process of becoming black and formulating their purpose and identity. Further research should examine the relationship between self-authorship and psychosocial development theories.
Methodology, Data Collection, & Discussion were excluded from this blog to protect the participants of this study - See "BGLO - Implications for Student Affairs Professionals."
Literature Review
According to Chickering (1993), psychosocial development is one of the primary developmental issues that student’s struggle with during their years in college. Chickering and Reisser (1993) provided a framework for how students establish and maintain their identities during college. In the literature, Chickering proposed seven vectors through which students develop and progress in college. Chickering called these vectors a “major highway[s] for journeying toward individuation.” These vectors are developing competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence, developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity. The seven vectors provided the structure for psychosocial development. Chickering developed this theory with the understanding of the student’s emotional, interpersonal, ethical, and intellectual spheres of progression in college. The literature discusses how these vectors build on each other. The processes by which these students move through are more like a cycle or a spiral. The vectors should not be examined as stages in which a student merely moves on to the next stage. On the other hand, as students move through this cycle certain vectors interact with each other, a student may deal with one or more vector at a time, or the student may recycle back to a previous vector to reexamine the issue. Throughout the literature it was noted the interaction between vectors 4 – 7. Establishing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity seem to be key features in developing students, particularly in student leaders in Black Greek-Lettered Organizations.
Theoretical Framework
In Chickering and Reisser’s model (1993), he proposed that these vectors are building blocks of each other. These vectors interact and work together as the student begins to develop throughout college. Developing Competence is the first vector in Chickering’s model. He suggests that student’s intellectual, physical, and interpersonal competence interact to increase a student level of trust in their abilities and integrate their skills to be competitive in the college setting. Next, managing emotions is the second vector and it is in this vector that student develop the understanding of their emotions and how to express their emotions in the most fitting manner. Furthermore, vector three describes students moving through autonomy toward interdependence. In this vector, students develop an increased capacity to be independent from others such as family, friends, and authority figures. Additionally, vector four develops student’s ability to have tolerance and appreciation of other’s differences and the capability to have intimate relationships. In addition, in vector five students begin to establish an identity that builds on vector four. In this vector, the student develops a clear understanding of who they are, become comfortable in their roles in society, and have a greater sense of their social and cultural heritage and how they fit in that tradition. Moreover, in vector six students begin to develop purpose where they cultivate clear and meaningful goals that they commit to the literature discusses that in this stage the students begin to develop “vocations” in which student can deepen their commitments and make meaning of life. Finally, in vector seven, developing integrity, students develop three overlapping values; personalizing values, humanizing values, and congruence. In order to develop integrity, students establish humanizing values that allow them to think of the interest of others more than they think of themselves. In addition, students begin to personalize their values by affirming their beliefs while respecting the opinions of others. At the same time, students develop a sense of congruence by taking their personal values and tying them with their social behavior. It is with this understanding that this paper examines vectors four through seven. The building blocks that interplay between developing mature relations, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity can play a role in the psychosocial development of African American college students in Black Greek-Lettered Organizations. However, the research is limited in that there are no connections made between the racial identity development and the psychosocial development of members of BGLO’s. Cross (1991) was instrumental in exploring the impact of racial identity development in black college students.
Scholars such as Cross (1991) described the racial identity development of African Americans. Cross’s theory has implications for black college students as they navigate the process of becoming black. This process of becoming black is a term coined by Cross called Nigrescence. Within this theory, there are three primary concepts, which are personal identity, reference group orientation, and race salience. According to the research, African Americans go through a process by which they socialize their black identity or lack thereof. Individuals establish a black identity through family, friends, and other events that make up their self-concept in the early stages of life. Depending on their socialization of the black experience, individuals merge into three identity types, which are low salience, high salience, and internalized racism. In early adulthood, it is important for African Americans to establish a reference group orientation (RGO’s) that share the same values that they do towards black culture. RGO’s are important for African American’s to strengthening their black identity. The research conducted here pays close attention to reference groups, and in particular, how students are attracted to certain types of groups. It is through student organizations that Black students can form a better sense of their black self by expanding their understanding of their black culture. Black Greek-Lettered Organizations can possibly provide the support as a reference group to help African American’s establishes a stronger connection to their history, tradition, and culture the broader black community.
In view of Cross’s (1991) model, there are six sectors that comprise all three nigrescence patterns. Particular attention examines sector five of the nigrescence model. Adult Nigrescence involves four stages, which are preencounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization. For the present study, internalization was examined as a key feature that black college students who join BGLO’s could possibly identify with. Internalization is the process through which students resolve their racial identity crisis in three viewpoints. Students become black nationalists, bicultural, or multicultural. Students with a Black Nationalist identity express a political and social justice agenda for the advancement of the black community. Students with a bicultural identity develop concerns with integrating their black identity with the dominant cultures identity. Finally, a student with a multicultural identity accepts a wide spectrum of identities. These students can identify as black, as well as being a member of another group or having another identity. Being black is not the only part of their identity. It is interesting to note that individuals who begin to internalize their black identity become social justice advocates for their particular identity perspective. Being social justice advocates began to develop further in the literature as black college students sought out organizations that enabled them to advance their community, cause, platform, or agenda.
Further research on student organizations and black identity expressions was explored in Harper and Quaye’s (2007) article entitled, Student Organizations as Venues for Black Identity Expression and Development among African American Male Student Leaders. In this article, Harper and Quaye sought out to identify the types of organizations that Black college students pursue to express their identity. The article pays particular attention to African American men and the avenues they use to express their Blackness. Highlighting Cross’s model of Nigresence as a theoretical framework, Harper and Quaye draw connections to the Internalization stage. Individuals in this stage develop an association towards groups that help them affirm their blackness and allow them to be social justice advocates. A caveat to this stage is that individuals begin to fight for the rights of other minority groups. Harper and Quaye’s sought to understand how student organizations affirm the racial identity development of African American male undergraduates (2007).
Participants in Harper and Quaye’s study expressed the desire to uplift the African American community and “doing their part” toward the issues on campus. It was also interesting to note that participants joined organizations on campus to dismiss certain stereotypes of the black community. For some members of these organizations it was observed that they chose the particular organization because they want to meet the needs of the African American community directly. On the other hand, several participants expressed that they joined majority organizations to be the voice of the African American community and use the resources of these organizations to support the cause of Black and minority student groups. This could possibly be done through student organization collaborations. The central theme is that these black male student leaders desired to be the voice for the rights and privileges of the minority student organizations and in particular, the African American community. This theme can be directly related to Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) seventh vector where students begin to develop humanizing values that allow them to think of others more than they think of themselves. In addition, vector five comes into play as these students desire to find themselves within their cultural heritage and advocating for its right (Chickering, 1993). Another interesting theme that came out of the literature is the development of cross-cultural understanding with other groups. Participants described that they learned how to work with groups of different cultures and backgrounds. It was through these interactions with other student organizations that they developed a greater sense of a social responsibility to others, in particular other minority students. The limitation of this research is that it was mainly conducted with black male student leaders who were from Predominately White Institutions. Future research should examine African American student leaders of both genders. In addition, research should be expanded to Historically Black College and Universities.
Comparatively, previous research had been conducted to examine the racial identity development needs of college students of color, and in particular black college students (R. Pope, 1998; R. Pope, 2000). Pope based her research on racial identity develop by looking at the psychosocial development of college students. Specifically using Chickering’s vectors of identity development, Pope used Establishing and Clarifying Purpose, Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships, and Developing Academic Autonomy to control for racial identity development. The four racial identity statuses that were explored in the study were Black Americans, Asian Americans, Latino Americans, and Native Americans. Establishing and Clarifying Purpose was divided into five categories, which were educational involvement, career planning, lifestyle planning, life management, and cultural participation. Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships were also divided into three categories, which were peer relationships, tolerance, and emotional autonomy. It should also be clarified that Pope based the research in this article on earlier research conducted by Chickering. Thus, the names of the vectors described in this literature are different from the vectors described in the aforementioned literature review. Establishing and Clarifying Purpose was changed to Developing Purpose. Likewise, Developing Academic Autonomy was changed to Developing Competence. Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationship remained the same in the literature. The changes were roughly due to Chickering’s new approach to the literature and broadening their implications (Chickering & Reisser, 1993).
The results of the data from this article described that there was a significant relationship between psychosocial development and racial identity development. It was noted that the main psychosocial factors that contributed the most to racial identity development were Developing Purpose, Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships, and Developing Competence. Pope (2000) suggests that psychosocial development and racial identity development go hand-in-hand. Students need to resolve their racial identity issues while they advanced through the vectors of psychosocial development. For student affairs professionals, attention must be given to the racial identity development of the student before addressing their psychosocial needs. The research suggests that Developing Purpose was the most essential vector for African American in the study (Pope, 2000). These students had a better sense of social responsibility and a greater sense of their calling in life. It is also interesting to note Internalization was related to Developing Purpose and Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships (Pope, 1998). Internalization and the two vectors mention above highlight the amalgamation of identity (who am I), personal goals in life (how do I know), and building strong relationships (how do I connect with others) (Pope, 1998). As we see in this literature, a hint of Baxter Magolda’s Self-Authorship is within the research as well. Although it was not studied in this research, self-authorship could play a role in how students go through the process of becoming black and formulating their purpose and identity. Further research should examine the relationship between self-authorship and psychosocial development theories.
Methodology, Data Collection, & Discussion were excluded from this blog to protect the participants of this study - See "BGLO - Implications for Student Affairs Professionals."
Sunday, November 11, 2012
Beyond Affirmative Action
Opportunity Beyond Affirmative Action: How Low-Income and Working-Class Black Male Achievers Access Highly Selective, High Cost Colleges and Universities
Ecological approaches to college student development have increasingly become a key contributor to the work of student affairs professionals. The literature discusses several forms of ecological approaches that have been research in the last decade. Human ecology examines the interactions, dependence, independence, and interdependence of humans with the environment. These interactions can be based within the individual, groups, or societies that are within the environment. The literature discusses environment as the primary external forces that may have influences on the individual whether that be the home, workplace, and (as we will discuss) the campus environment. Developmental ecology notes that development of the person cannot be examined without consideration of the outside contexts of the developing individual. Campus ecology highlights the development of the student as it relates to the interaction of the campus environment. Uncovering the dynamics of campus ecology one would look how the campus influences the student and how the student influences the campus.
Overview
In Opportunity Beyond Affirmative Action: How Low-Income and Working Class Black Male Achievers Access Highly Selective, High Cost Colleges and Universities, Shaun Harper and Kimberly Griffin (2011), sit down with several students to discuss the decisions and their implications for choosing an elite institutions for their undergraduate career. This article uses the anti-deficit achievement framework to describe the enablers rather than the barriers to academic achievement. The authors specifically examine the experiences of students who are the least likely to enroll due to financial resources. Harper and Griffin discuss the policies and programs that enabled these students to successfully venture their way to these colleges and universities. It also suggests further actions for best practices and policies for student affairs professionals, institutions of higher education, and government officials. I believe the main purpose of this article is to show the factors that can contribute to college access for black males without solely being based on affirmative action. Often times, the past and present literature focuses on the factors that inhibit or prevent black males from attending high class colleges and universities. Although, it is not stated explicitly, I will make clear connections through examples from the research that was conducted to ecological approaches to college student development. I saw that this theory was prevalent in much of the article and could have implications for the types of environments that enable black male success.
Method and Data
The population that was selected and interviewed consisted of black male high achievers who were from low-income or working class backgrounds that were able to enroll, attend, and successfully matriculate through these expensive predominately White private institutions of higher education. Using eighteen institutions, forty-two participants self-reported being among low-income and working-class backgrounds. Participants self-report described 38.1 percent as low-income, 61.9 percent as working class. Family structures were labeled as 45.2 percent single parent and 50.0 percent two parent households. Participant demographics suggested that more than 70 percent were from families that neither parent had attained a bachelor’s degree. Participants were interviewed based on previous literature on programs, policies, and practices that enabled college access. Several themes were categorized into three domains that will be discussed further in the findings section of this paper.
Findings
It is interesting to note that no participant in the study knowingly suggested that they received special treated for their race throughout the admissions process. However, it should be noted that 39 out of the 42 participants reported that they had been accused by White peers of entrance into the institution solely based on affirmative action policies and practices. The three themes that stood for the researchers were the major programs and policies institutions both on campus and out of college that contributed to the access for these students. The first type of program is the “specialty high school contexts and independent school access initiatives for urban youth.” This type of enabler is the environment that prepared the student for access to these colleges. These students are from urban communities but had privileged school environments, such as magnet schools, that established a strong college-going atmosphere throughout K – 12. Also, an outside organization called Prep for Prep was attributed to with the ability to help shape and set paths to college through visits, scholarships, and mentorship by counselors. The types of encouragement that was given to these students pushed them to apply to competitive colleges. One student mentioned that “You don’t go to these Ivy League – caliber high schools and then not go to college.” Now, I want to refer back to our reading to connect the dots. The environment that these students had the access to provided them with the key concepts for student development. The interactions between guidance counselors in the classroom and other officials like at Prep for Prep provided the needed student-interaction to enable success into college. The person in the context of this small microsystem encouraged particular forms of interaction between the student and authority figures that pushed these students.
Secondly, the article discusses another type of enabler that allows for college access for black males. “Collaborative college access and talent identification programs for urban youth,” provided for these students direct scholarships and other types of funding that enabled students to cover the cost of their tuition, books, and room and board. One of these groups was called the Posse Foundation, which actively seeks out ways to engage black male high achievers. A posse was instrumental in helping these student transitions into college and provided further assistance during their first year of college. Also, these students were engaged by the foundation to unveil the educational value of these students and gave them a sense of purpose and meaning. They did this by grouping similar students’ demographics by socioeconomic backgrounds and career interests. Through this mesosystem the student now has several external structures that support the “developmentally instigative characteristics” of the student. I also want to plug in the intersectionality of Schlossberg’s theory of transition and highlight these are important events that impact the student through the 4 S’s. In particular, support is essential to the student. As a student identifies support systems that can affirm, encourage, and push the student can function as a successful transition for why these black male college students felt that they could achieve in a college setting.
Finally, another common access enabler that was highlighted within the research were the institutional efforts for funding for students. These institutional funds provided access to the high achieving black males to gain entrance into these Ivy League institutions. “Institution based, no-loans, and zero-contribution initiatives,” is the theme that described the types of funding that these students received upon entrance into the particular institution. For these students who come from low-income and working class families the financial aid package was the biggest faction in choose the high class university over the state school close to home. The exosystem that surrounds the student in the college environment provided the policies and procedural structures that allowed for greater access.
Conclusion and Assessment
This study main purpose was to examine the enablers to college access for high achieving black males. The article put a special emphasis on affirmative action policies and their need. Although it had mentioned several cases of students who were afforded the opportunity to attend these elite institutions, the authors failed to mention their stance on affirmative action itself. They do not mention if the standing policy should be left or removed. The article indirectly suggest that the policy should remain but subtly suggests that policies should be in place like the ones aforementioned that would enable minority student to attend college. The conclusion and suggestions are a bit general and too vague for the benefit of student affairs professionals. It suggests that there should be more policies in place that would allow for more student access into these high class institutions without providing the “how to” methods.
Ecological approaches to college student development have increasingly become a key contributor to the work of student affairs professionals. The literature discusses several forms of ecological approaches that have been research in the last decade. Human ecology examines the interactions, dependence, independence, and interdependence of humans with the environment. These interactions can be based within the individual, groups, or societies that are within the environment. The literature discusses environment as the primary external forces that may have influences on the individual whether that be the home, workplace, and (as we will discuss) the campus environment. Developmental ecology notes that development of the person cannot be examined without consideration of the outside contexts of the developing individual. Campus ecology highlights the development of the student as it relates to the interaction of the campus environment. Uncovering the dynamics of campus ecology one would look how the campus influences the student and how the student influences the campus.
Overview
In Opportunity Beyond Affirmative Action: How Low-Income and Working Class Black Male Achievers Access Highly Selective, High Cost Colleges and Universities, Shaun Harper and Kimberly Griffin (2011), sit down with several students to discuss the decisions and their implications for choosing an elite institutions for their undergraduate career. This article uses the anti-deficit achievement framework to describe the enablers rather than the barriers to academic achievement. The authors specifically examine the experiences of students who are the least likely to enroll due to financial resources. Harper and Griffin discuss the policies and programs that enabled these students to successfully venture their way to these colleges and universities. It also suggests further actions for best practices and policies for student affairs professionals, institutions of higher education, and government officials. I believe the main purpose of this article is to show the factors that can contribute to college access for black males without solely being based on affirmative action. Often times, the past and present literature focuses on the factors that inhibit or prevent black males from attending high class colleges and universities. Although, it is not stated explicitly, I will make clear connections through examples from the research that was conducted to ecological approaches to college student development. I saw that this theory was prevalent in much of the article and could have implications for the types of environments that enable black male success.
Method and Data
The population that was selected and interviewed consisted of black male high achievers who were from low-income or working class backgrounds that were able to enroll, attend, and successfully matriculate through these expensive predominately White private institutions of higher education. Using eighteen institutions, forty-two participants self-reported being among low-income and working-class backgrounds. Participants self-report described 38.1 percent as low-income, 61.9 percent as working class. Family structures were labeled as 45.2 percent single parent and 50.0 percent two parent households. Participant demographics suggested that more than 70 percent were from families that neither parent had attained a bachelor’s degree. Participants were interviewed based on previous literature on programs, policies, and practices that enabled college access. Several themes were categorized into three domains that will be discussed further in the findings section of this paper.
Findings
It is interesting to note that no participant in the study knowingly suggested that they received special treated for their race throughout the admissions process. However, it should be noted that 39 out of the 42 participants reported that they had been accused by White peers of entrance into the institution solely based on affirmative action policies and practices. The three themes that stood for the researchers were the major programs and policies institutions both on campus and out of college that contributed to the access for these students. The first type of program is the “specialty high school contexts and independent school access initiatives for urban youth.” This type of enabler is the environment that prepared the student for access to these colleges. These students are from urban communities but had privileged school environments, such as magnet schools, that established a strong college-going atmosphere throughout K – 12. Also, an outside organization called Prep for Prep was attributed to with the ability to help shape and set paths to college through visits, scholarships, and mentorship by counselors. The types of encouragement that was given to these students pushed them to apply to competitive colleges. One student mentioned that “You don’t go to these Ivy League – caliber high schools and then not go to college.” Now, I want to refer back to our reading to connect the dots. The environment that these students had the access to provided them with the key concepts for student development. The interactions between guidance counselors in the classroom and other officials like at Prep for Prep provided the needed student-interaction to enable success into college. The person in the context of this small microsystem encouraged particular forms of interaction between the student and authority figures that pushed these students.
Secondly, the article discusses another type of enabler that allows for college access for black males. “Collaborative college access and talent identification programs for urban youth,” provided for these students direct scholarships and other types of funding that enabled students to cover the cost of their tuition, books, and room and board. One of these groups was called the Posse Foundation, which actively seeks out ways to engage black male high achievers. A posse was instrumental in helping these student transitions into college and provided further assistance during their first year of college. Also, these students were engaged by the foundation to unveil the educational value of these students and gave them a sense of purpose and meaning. They did this by grouping similar students’ demographics by socioeconomic backgrounds and career interests. Through this mesosystem the student now has several external structures that support the “developmentally instigative characteristics” of the student. I also want to plug in the intersectionality of Schlossberg’s theory of transition and highlight these are important events that impact the student through the 4 S’s. In particular, support is essential to the student. As a student identifies support systems that can affirm, encourage, and push the student can function as a successful transition for why these black male college students felt that they could achieve in a college setting.
Finally, another common access enabler that was highlighted within the research were the institutional efforts for funding for students. These institutional funds provided access to the high achieving black males to gain entrance into these Ivy League institutions. “Institution based, no-loans, and zero-contribution initiatives,” is the theme that described the types of funding that these students received upon entrance into the particular institution. For these students who come from low-income and working class families the financial aid package was the biggest faction in choose the high class university over the state school close to home. The exosystem that surrounds the student in the college environment provided the policies and procedural structures that allowed for greater access.
Conclusion and Assessment
This study main purpose was to examine the enablers to college access for high achieving black males. The article put a special emphasis on affirmative action policies and their need. Although it had mentioned several cases of students who were afforded the opportunity to attend these elite institutions, the authors failed to mention their stance on affirmative action itself. They do not mention if the standing policy should be left or removed. The article indirectly suggest that the policy should remain but subtly suggests that policies should be in place like the ones aforementioned that would enable minority student to attend college. The conclusion and suggestions are a bit general and too vague for the benefit of student affairs professionals. It suggests that there should be more policies in place that would allow for more student access into these high class institutions without providing the “how to” methods.
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